© SL Photography / Adobe Stock
The Cradle of
Cacao
Rewriting the History of a Species
For much of modern scholarship, cacao's origins were traced to ancient Mesoamerican civilizations. But explosive discoveries in the upper Amazon are rewriting the story, illuminating Ecuador’s cloud forests as the cradle of cacao domestication.
Santa Ana–La Florida Archaeological Site, Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón Culture
An aerial view of SALF reveals the central sunken plaza surrounded by ring-shaped foundations of ancient domestic structures. Beneath the protective shelter, is the excavation of the stone-lined tomb at the heart of the artificial mound—highlighting the ceremonial and domestic complexity of this pivotal Amazonian village.
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Image: Dr. Francisco Valdez
Discovery Among the
Cloud Forests
It began with a gleam of stone among dust: a polished, pod-shaped artifact sitting quietly in a farmer’s museum—clearly fashioned by skilled hands, impossible to overlook. During an initial survey of the ancient Mayo Chinchipe–Marañón culture, Dr. Francisco Valdez and his team encountered this striking object—a mortar and pestle carved in the distinct shape of a cacao pod. “I cannot really say he was a treasure hunter, although he had several small treasures in his collection… We took pictures of the objects as, at the time, we knew that these belonged to an unknown cultural manifestation, but we really did not imagine the antiquity or the importance of these finds,” Valdez recalls.
This is a story about origins and revelations—a journey into Amazonian chacras (ancestral forest gardens). As Valdez explains, “The chacra is not a plantation. It’s a garden inside the forest—an ancestral system that keeps biodiversity intact and cacao healthy.”
Here, the implications are astounding: Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) remains the oldest scientifically proven and peer-reviewed evidence of Theobroma cacao domestication and use, due to a confluence of pioneering methodologies—methylxanthine detection, DNA analysis, and radiocarbon dating. “This is still the earliest evidence for cacao use in the Americas, ~1,500 years earlier than the earliest evidence in Mesoamerica, and provided dated archaeological evidence confirming the upper Amazon as the origin of cacao,” notes Dr. Sonia Zarrillo.
Amazonian chacra
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A chacra is an ancestral, biodiverse garden system practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Amazon. Unlike monocultures, chacras blend fruit trees, medicinal plants, roots, and crops like cacao, maintaining forest health, resilience, and cultural heritage.
Until the 21st century, the prevailing narrative placed cacao’s beginnings in Central America around 2300 BC. But with digs like SALF (datable to 3500–3300 BC), the timeline—and the map—have shifted. Explosive cross-border research, especially in Peru, continues to redraw chocolate’s family tree as Cocoa Insider brings this panoramic view of science, spirituality, and ancient culture into sharp focus. Cacao, a “living bridge,” played a vital role in birth, death, and ritual among ancient Amazonians—a role that echoes in today’s communities and global commerce.
“This is still the earliest evidence for cacao use in the Americas, ~1,500 years earlier than the earliest evidence in Mesoamerica, and provided dated archaeological evidence confirming the upper Amazon as the origin of cacao”
— Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
Pod-Shaped Mortar and Pestle, Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón Culture
This polished stone mortar and pestle, expertly carved in the form of a cacao pod, was discovered in a local farmer’s collection in the upper Amazon. Its distinctive shape and craftsmanship sparked the initial scientific inquiry into ancient cacao use at Santa Ana–La Florida, ultimately rewriting the story of chocolate’s origins.
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​Image: Dr. Francisco Valdez
Following Ancient Clues
Hidden in a lush valley on the eastern slopes of the Andes, near the border of Ecuador and Peru, lies the archaeological site of Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF)—a village pivotal in rewriting chocolate’s story. Discovered in the early 2000s by a Franco-Ecuadorian team led by Dr. Francisco Valdez, the site sits at 1,050 meters above sea level in what was once the cultural corridor of the Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón people.
Covering just over a hectare, SALF features a planned ceremonial layout: a central, sunken plaza, two artificial platforms, and a ring of about 20 stone structures interpreted as domestic dwellings. “When we began our research, we were not thinking of cacao at all… Actually, the main focus was on getting information about the newly discovered archaeological culture,” Valdez recalls. More than 30 radiocarbon dates from the site place its initial occupation between 5,450 and 3,305 calibrated years BP.
Calibrated Years BP
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Radiocarbon dating produces ages in “years before present” (BP), but raw results aren’t the same as exact calendar years. To correct for natural fluctuations in atmospheric carbon over millennia, scientists match radiocarbon results to reference records like tree rings. A calibrated date BP—with “BP” meaning “before present,” set at 1950—reflects this correction, making archaeological dates line up with real historical time.For example, the range “5,450 to 3,305 cal. yr BP” means the site was occupied between about 3,500 and 1,350 BCE in true calendar years.
This small village functioned as a local ceremonial centre, with the remains of approximately 20 buildings situated around the plaza. The first hints of something extraordinary came not from the field, but from a local museum: a polished stone mortar shaped like a cacao pod. “We thought it was odd... At the time, we knew these belonged to an unknown cultural manifestation, but we really did not imagine the antiquity or the importance of these finds,” notes Valdez. Fieldwork soon revealed a cemetery beneath the eastern platform, yielding exquisite ceramics, turquoise and malachite beads, shell ornaments, and more—signs of a vibrant and complex society with far-reaching connections.
Excavation of the Central Mound, Santa Ana–La Florida
An interior view of the stone-lined artificial mound at SALF reveals the architectural complexity of the site, including concentric walls, pathways, and ceremonial features. This protected area showcases the intricate construction methods of the Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón people and highlights the importance of the central mound in community ritual and burial practices.
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Image: Dr. Francisco Valdez
Ceremonial Hearth and Tomb Entrance, Santa Ana–La Florida
Detail of the ceremonial hearth and the entrance to the stone-lined tomb at the center of the artificial mound. As noted by Dr. Sonia Zarrillo, the tomb entrance can be seen at bottom left, marked by step-like stone slabs leading down—an arrangement signaling the ceremonial and funerary significance at the heart of the site.
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Image: Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
From Stone Artifacts to
Genetic Code
The breakthrough in cacao research came with the arrival of Canadian paleoethnobotanist Dr. Sonia Zarrillo, who joined the project as part of her dissertation research. “She’s one of the world’s leading experts on the identification of starch granules in plants. So it was Sonia who made the first identification and discovery of the cocoa residues inside some of the ceramic and stone vessels,” recounts Valdez. Her radiocarbon-dated samples returned to a remarkable window of 5,300–5,500 years BP (before present), pushing back the timeline for cacao’s use by more than 1,500 years compared to Mesoamerica.
Zarrillo explains: “As an archaeologist and paleoethnobotanist, my role was to investigate plant use in the past by studying microscopic and chemical residues left behind in ancient artifacts… My main responsibility was to provide the archaeobotanical evidence that ultimately helped demonstrate that domesticated cacao was being cultivated, processed, and consumed, along with wild cacao relatives and many other domesticated plants, in the upper Amazon more than 5,300 years ago.”
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Her work, supplemented by collaborations with chemists and geneticists (notably Dr. Claire Lanaud on DNA), produced the “extraordinary evidence for an extraordinary claim” needed to overturn established narratives. Studies conducted by Dr. Valdez’s team analyzed more than 350 archaeological artifacts from the Upper Amazon—spanning ceramics, burial urns, and vessels from 19 distinct pre-Columbian cultures—and found cacao particles on about 30% of samples. This robust evidence proves that the fruit was domesticated, cultivated, and circulated in South America for more than 5,000 years, long before its presence in Mesoamerica. Genetic analysis further reveals mixing between geographically distant cacao species, documenting ancient trade routes and cultural interactions stretching from the Amazon basin to the Pacific coast.
“I knew that I could not publish a paper based solely on starch grains and upend the very entrenched narrative that cacao originated in Mesoamerica. No, I needed extraordinary evidence for an extraordinary claim.”
— Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
Excavation of the Two-Faced Stirrup Spout Bottle, Santa Ana–La Florida
The emblematic two-faced stirrup spout bottle emerges from the earth during excavation of the central tomb at SALF. Still embedded in the soil, the vessel rests as it was placed over 5,000 years ago, alongside shell and turquoise beads—capturing a moment frozen in time and revealing the profound ritual significance of cacao in ancient Amazonian burial practices.
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Image: Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
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Emblematic Two-Faced Stirrup Spout Bottle, Santa Ana–La Florida
This iconic vessel, adorned with human effigies on both sides, was discovered in a tomb at the heart of the artificial mound at SALF. Chemical analysis revealed residues of a cacao-based beverage inside, confirming its ceremonial use. As both Valdez and Zarrillo note, this two-faced stirrup spout bottle exemplifies the Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón culture’s artistry and the centrality of cacao in ancient ritual and funerary traditions.
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Image: Dr. Francisco Valdez
Stirrup-Spout Bottle Under Analysis
The two-faced stirrup-spout bottle undergoes residue extraction in an ultrasonic bath, a process used to loosen and recover ancient interior residues for scientific analysis. This non-destructive technique allows researchers to identify traces of cacao and other substances, shedding light on the vessel’s ceremonial use in pre-Columbian Amazonia.
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Image: Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
Microscopic Evidence of Cacao
General view of a microscope slide showing particulate matter from artifact residues, with a Theobroma spp. (cacao) starch grain highlighted at center. Identification of these starch grains is crucial for confirming the ancient presence and use of cacao in archaeological ceramic vessels.
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Image: Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
Dating Domestication:
Tracing Cacao’s Ancient Origins
To uncover the ancient relationship between the Mayo-Chinchipe people and cacao at the Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in Ecuador, researchers employed a suite of advanced scientific tests on artifacts excavated from tombs, domestic settings, and ceremonial structures.
They selected 19 artifacts—including ceramic vessels, bowls, mortars, and pestles—and carefully extracted organic residues from their porous surfaces. In total, 81 scraping or “burr” samples and two residue samples were taken from ceramics, alongside 98 samples from stone implements. Each was subjected to rigorous analysis using some of archaeology’s most sophisticated techniques.
The first step was to search for distinctive starch grains characteristic of Theobroma species—the cacao genus—under a microscope. These were found in about one-third of the ceramic vessels tested, including one sherd directly dated to 5450–5300 years ago, pushing back the earliest confirmed cacao use by over a millennium.
Next, the team employed ultra-performance liquid chromatography paired with tandem mass spectrometry—a high-precision method to detect even trace amounts of plant compounds. They looked specifically for theobromine, a marker compound present in domesticated T. cacao but absent from most wild relatives. The presence of theobromine in the vessel residues provided decisive chemical evidence that these artifacts held cacao, not just other Theobroma species.
To strengthen their findings, researchers also extracted and sequenced ancient DNA from the residues, confirming the presence of T. cacao at the site. This provided a third, independent line of proof for cacao’s use by the Mayo-Chinchipe people.
Together, these results reveal a remarkable prehistoric scene: stone tools to grind and prepare cacao, specialized pottery to store or serve cacao beverages, and chemical markers that tie the process to domesticated T. cacao. This shows the Mayo-Chinchipe people were not only utilizing but likely cultivating cacao at least 5450 years ago—well before its appearance in Central America.​​
With such hard evidence in hand, the story of cacao at SALF comes alive: it was woven into daily life as nourishment, medicine, social connector, and sacred ritual item.
Daily and Sacred Uses:
Cacao in the Ancient Amazon
The story of cacao winds differently through South America than it does in Mesoamerica. While ancient Maya and Aztec cultures dried and ground cacao seeds to make ritual drinks, used them as currency, and elevated cacao in art and myth, the Mayo-Chinchipe people of the upper Amazon gave cacao a central—if quieter—role in both daily and sacred life. Lacking a formal writing system, their story comes to us through sherds of pottery, ceramic depictions, stone carvings, and oral traditions: cacao seeds, pods, and pulp were part of everyday food, invigorating snacks, fresh juice, and even fermented ritual beverages. The leaves and bark were infused for medicine, while tree trunks helped build homes.
Archaeological discoveries at the Santa Ana-La Florida site show that as early as 5,450 years ago, cacao was not just consumed as food or during ceremonies, but flourished at the boundaries of the domestic and the divine—offered in tombs, enjoyed in households, and valued for its stimulating and healing properties. This evidence reveals a stable and enduring bond between people and cacao in this region, painting a picture that is both familiar and strikingly unique compared to its famous northern story.
Rewriting the Origin Story
For much of the 20th century, botanists and archaeologists debated whether cacao’s true origins lay in Mesoamerica or further south. Evidence now paints the upper Amazon as the hotspot of cacao domestication. Genetic studies consistently show that the greatest diversity and earliest management of cacao occur in regions straddling Ecuador and northern Peru, where the Mayo Chinchipe–Marañón peoples lived and traded.
Dr. Valdez explains, “Studies have shown that forms of Theobroma and Herrania are present in Amazonia since at least 10 million years ago… The evidence found at the SALF site clearly shows the social use of cacao in South America, a long way before its use in Mesoamerica.”
This narrative is confirmed by recent ancient DNA work: the cacao consumed in the Upper Amazon of Ecuador 5,450 to 5,300 years ago shares markers with varieties found later in Mesoamerica, pointing to a human-mediated dispersal along mountains and waterways. Dr. Terry Powis, Associate Professor of Anthropology at Kennesaw State University and National Geographic Explorer, reflects, “We saw more researchers involved, providing not only earlier dates but improved techniques for recovery of cacao. Eventually, we pushed the earliest date back to 1,800 BC in Mesoamerica… This meant that finding any other use of cacao would involve going south in northern South America. That’s how I got involved at SALF. We combined our methods to push the boundaries of what we knew.”
Evidence now suggests that ancient cultures acted as agents of dispersal, moving cacao from wild Amazonian origins northward, where new varieties and uses took root. The famed Criollo variety, found in Mesoamerica, descends from Amazonian cacao that crossed the Andes and spread up the Pacific coast. The Amazon basin emerges not as a remote peripheral zone, but as a vibrant center of crop domestication, innovation, and interregional exchange. Without ancient Amazonian societies and their skilled agro-ecological knowledge, modern chocolate simply would not exist.
“We combined our methods to push the boundaries of what we knew... More researchers became involved, bringing not only earlier dates but improved techniques for recovery of cacao.”
— Dr. Terry Powis
Timeline: Cacao’s Changing Origins
~5,450–5,300 BP (c. 3500–3300 BCE) Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF), Upper Amazon, Ecuador: Earliest proven evidence of cacao use and domestication: starch grains, theobromine, and ancient DNA are all found in ceramics and stone tools. Confirms the Upper Amazon as the origin point for cacao’s domestication.
~3,800–3,000 BP (1,850–1,050 BCE) Olmec civilization, Mesoamerica: First strong evidence for cacao use in Mesoamerican societies, previously believed to be the heart of cacao’s origins.
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~3,750 BP (1,800 BCE) Mokaya culture, southern Mexico: Cacao residues found on pottery shards, indicating consumption and use by early sedentary Mesoamerican farmers.
16th–19th Centuries: Medieval–Early Modern Era Cacao introduced to Europe by Spanish conquistadors, beginning with Hernán Cortés in the early 1500s. Cacao spreads throughout Europe and globally through colonial expansion, transatlantic trade, and the plantation system. Amelonado and Nacional types become dominant in commercial agriculture outside the Americas.
20th Century (1960s–1990s): The Mesoamerican Paradigm Archaeological discoveries and early residue studies lead scholars to believe Mesoamerica is the cradle of cacao. Popular books and fieldwork enshrine the Maya, Aztec, and Olmec as the earliest chocolate cultures.
21st Century (2000s–2020s): The Amazon Origin Revolution Genomic and biochemical breakthroughs confirm cacao’s greatest genetic diversity and earliest cultural management are rooted in the Upper Amazon. Studies show domesticated cacao and its genetic lineages spread from the Andes to the Pacific coast and later north to Mesoamerica via ancient trade routes. SALF remains the gold standard for early, peer-reviewed evidence—new sites like Huaca Montegrande are exciting but not yet as conclusively documented.
Lives Behind the Lab:
Field Notes and Fortunes
Scientific discovery often hinges on perseverance and chance—and nowhere is that truer than in Amazonian archaeology. As Dr. Valdez recalls, “Probably the most challenging part of the job was identifying and sequencing ancient DNA. Many specialists thought that their conservation in the humid and acid floors of the upper Amazon would not permit the survival of the ancient DNA. The study showed that it did.” Building this robust proof set required painstaking laboratory work and new techniques, including the first-ever identification of starch granules from cacao in archaeological material—complementing chemical and genetic fingerprints.
Collaboration among scientists from diverse fields and continents was essential. Dr. Sonia Zarrillo describes how serendipity and scientific rigor came together: “When Michael [Blake] asked if I had ever seen Theobroma starch grains in my analyses, I went back to my samples with fresh eyes... From there, the collaboration widened: Dr. Claire Lanaud, working on cacao genetics, also reached out to Valdez, and Michael linked us with Terry Powis and colleagues… It might sound like serendipity, but as Valdez liked to remind us, ‘there are no coincidences.’”
Zarrillo vividly remembers working in the lushness of the field: “How breathtakingly beautiful it is. [SALF] is adjacent to a butterfly conservation area—a crucial area for butterfly diversity and endemism. How can you not love working with hundreds of different butterflies flitting about you?” Such moments underscore that archaeological sites are not just windows into the past but part of vibrant living landscapes, where cacao is still pollinated and forests and farming coexist.
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Residue Analysis in Quito, 2012
Dr. Terry Powis (left) and colleague Patrick Severts (right) are pictured preparing to sample artifacts from Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) for cacao residue testing in a laboratory in Quito, Ecuador. This crucial analysis helped provide the earliest confirmed evidence of cacao use in the Upper Amazon, with Patrick Severts co-authoring the resulting Nature Ecology & Evolution publication alongside the research team.
Photo: Dr. Francisco Valdez
Processing Comparative Plants
Dr. Sonia Zarrillo prepares samples of comparative plants collected near the Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) site, with the Valladolid River flowing in the background. These modern reference specimens are essential for identifying plant residues recovered from ancient artifacts.
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Photo credit: Sonia Zarrillo
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Fieldwork at SALF, 2013
Julio Hurtado (left) and Claire Lanaud (right) excavating at the Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) archaeological site in 2013. Their collaborative fieldwork contributed to the scientific breakthroughs on early cacao domestication and use in the Upper Amazon.
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Photo credit: Dr. Claire Lanaud
Dr. Francisco Valdez in the Field
Dr. Francisco Valdez documents excavation details on site at Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF). His leadership and careful fieldwork were pivotal to uncovering the Amazonian origins of cacao and advancing knowledge of early cultural practices in the region.
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Photo credit: Dr. Claire Lanaud
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Beyond Origins:
Mapping Cacao’s Spread
Since the landmark discoveries at SALF clarified cacao’s Amazonian beginnings, research has shifted to understanding how this plant—so entwined with ritual and daily life—moved beyond its forest homeland.
A 2024 study by Dr. Claire Lanaud and colleagues broadened the search, analyzing over 300 ceramic artifacts from 19 cultures and detecting ancient cacao DNA on nearly 30% of them. These results reveal the early and extensive distribution of Theobroma cacao and its wild relatives, especially along the Pacific coast, and highlight how trade, migration, and cultural exchange shaped the spread of cacao cultivation.
As the researchers state: “Our new findings demonstrate the large landscape of domestication of cacao, out of its area of origin, along the Pacific coast of South America, occurring concurrently during this same early time period and in subsequent time periods. … The wide range of ceramic artifacts containing evidence of ancient T. cacao DNA demonstrates the extensive and ongoing use of both T. cacao and its wild relatives by ancient peoples who lived along the Pacific coast of northern South America.”
The question now becomes: how far, and by what routes, did cacao travel as South American societies evolved and interconnected?
Powis explains: “So this question touches on something I have been trying to do for more than 20 years, trace the movement of cacao from South America into North America. With the SALF project, we were able to state that cacao has been used by people going back more than 5,000 years. And we know the Mokaya were using cacao from 1800 BC onwards. So the idea has been to connect the dots between the two regions, which was presumably done overland. However, we cannot rule out movement of cacao over water as well. My cacao colleagues and myself want to figure out a waterborne route not only from South America into Mesoamerica but into North America as well, perhaps moving up through the Caribbean islands. This is the really interesting next step in cacao studies from an archaeological point of view. It has been slow going on this front because of the funding needed to sample vessels from different cultures on different islands.”
In this new era, the focus shifts from pinpointing where cacao began to unraveling the full, dynamic story of its journeys through ancient landscapes—and the peoples who made chocolate a global treasure.
Amazonian Genius and Chocolate’s Legacy
The lessons of SALF reach far beyond chocolate’s ancient origins. Cacao’s journey out of the Amazon was only possible because Indigenous societies mastered the art of domestication and land stewardship. For thousands of years, Amazonian peoples transformed forests into dynamic landscapes—“chacras”—intentionally cultivating and tending dozens of useful species including cacao, manioc, cupuaçu, pineapples, peppers, and palms. This co-evolution of crop, ecology, and culture made the upper Amazon a global hotspot of plant diversity and agricultural innovation.
Dr. Valdez observes, “The MCHM society had an active participation in transforming the natural settings of the upper Amazon. Their high mobility enabled them to profit from the different resources… The interaction they had with the coeval Pacific coastal Valdivia culture is proven by the presence of traded marine seashells… and through this process, cacao was taken to the coast at an early time.” Far from unsophisticated, “green hell” stereotypes, these ancestors were innovators, trade partners, and spiritual visionaries.
Adding to this, Valdez notes, “The most important characteristic of our research is that it further establishes the cultures from the Upper Amazon as innovative peoples who were fundamental in the emergence of civilizational phenomena. Now the importance of these cultures is doubly recognized. The Amazonians were capable of enormous civilizational achievements, and regional interaction was an important factor.” Recent archaeogenomic research supports this, showing extensive genetic mixing between cacao species from remote regions—clear evidence of significant trade and cultural exchange, as well as an adaptive approach to managing cacao’s genetic resources.
The modern impact is tangible. Discoveries at SALF have generated a new wave of pride in Ecuador, championed the superior Nacional variety, and inspired new cacao initiatives supporting ethical, fair-trade production. “By documenting and preserving the wider genetic and cultural histories of cacao and its relatives, we can not only better understand the past but also ensure a more resilient future for this vital crop,” explains Zarrillo. Protecting Amazonian biocultural heritage—and the extraordinary Theobroma diversity it harbors—is now recognized as a global imperative, for ecological resilience, community pride, and the future of chocolate everywhere.
Assorted Stirrup Spout Bottles, Santa Ana–La Florida
An array of stirrup spout bottles excavated from SALF, each uniquely shaped yet sharing the distinctive double-handled design characteristic of the Mayo-Chinchipe–Marañón culture. These vessels were used to prepare, store, and serve cacao-based beverages in daily life and ritual. The variety in form and decoration reflects both artistic diversity and the central role of cacao in ancient Amazonian society.
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Image: Dr. Francisco Valdez
The Next Chapter:
New Sites, New Questions
The past decade has seen an explosion in discoveries cementing the Amazon’s role as cacao’s ancestral homeland. Recently, the monumental site of Huaca Montegrande in northern Peru has yielded cacao residues and artifacts dating back over 5,300 years, contemporary with those found at SALF—and possibly even older. Huaca Montegrande, with its dramatic 400-meter stone spiral and ceremonial temples, not only showcases sophisticated pre-Columbian civilization, but reveals cacao at the heart of early Amazonian religious and social life.
However, it is important to note that while the Montegrande findings are remarkable and suggest exciting new possibilities, as of 2025, Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) in Ecuador remains the only site with rigorously peer-reviewed, multi-method scientific evidence confirming early domestication and use of Theobroma cacao. SALF stands as the current gold standard for such research, with Montegrande still awaiting full scientific consensus and publication in the academic literature.
New archaeogenomic research continues to refine our understanding, tracing the movement of cacao genes and cultural knowledge from the Andes to Central America and beyond. DNA from pre-Columbian ceramics and burials confirms that cacao was cultivated and revered by myriad cultures across the Upper Amazon, later radiating out through riverine and coastal trade, all the way to Mesoamerica.
Researchers like Dr. Sonia Zarrillo and Dr. Terry Powis are now focusing on how these routes—overland and potentially even maritime—enabled domesticated cacao to become a bridge between civilizations. “We need more systematic research to fill these gaps and better understand the complex paths of its dispersal,” says Zarrillo. Dr. Powis adds, “Tracing cacao use across the Caribbean into North America is one of the most exciting and most unresolved questions left in the field.”
The practical stakes for the future remain high. Cacao’s Amazonian genetic diversity is key to climate-adaptive, sustainable chocolate production, and agroforestry-based cacao not only preserves cultural heritage but actively restores degraded lands and reduces greenhouse emissions, as research in Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru has shown.
With each new discovery by archaeologists and local farmers uncover more deep history in the Amazon, ancient knowledge and molecular science together are poised to guide the next chapter in one of humanity’s oldest, most beloved relationships: that between people and chocolate.
As Dr. Valdez’s team uncovered deep Amazonian roots for cacao, they didn’t just rewrite history—they offered a blueprint for the future. … In a time when threats to cacao are mounting, this ancient wisdom from the rainforest points toward a path of resilience and renewal. The lesson is clear: preserving diversity—biological and cultural—may well be the key to chocolate’s next epoch.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Dr. Francisco Valdez, Dr. Sonia Zarrillo, Dr. Terry Powis, and all members of the Santa Ana–La Florida (SALF) project, for sharing their expertise, insights, and generosity throughout the research process. Additional gratitude to the local communities and all interview participants whose perspectives and knowledge enriched this story.
Words by Scott McCormack
Photographs and insights supplied by:
Dr. Francisco Valdez
Dr. Sonia Zarrillo
Dr. Terry Powis
For more, see:
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Zarrillo, S., Valdez, F., et al., ‘The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon,’ Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2018.
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Lanaud, C., Vignes, H., Utge, J., et al., “A revisited history of cacao domestication in pre-Columbian times revealed by archaeogenomic approaches,” Scientific Reports, 2024.
Stay tuned to Cocoa Insider for continuing coverage as new sites are unearthed, new discoveries are made, and the true origin story of cacao and chocolate deepens.
© SL Photography / Adobe Stock